Introduction: Thyroid gland volume is highly variable as it is greatly influenced by age, gender, anthropometric measurements, and geographical location. It has become essential for every population to determine the reference range of their normal thyroid gland volume in healthy individuals. This, in turn, will help the population in grading goitre and guide large-scale iodine monitoring programs. Ultrasound, being more precise than clinical examination in identifying enlarged thyroid glands, overcomes the problems of overestimation of goitre prevalence and marked interobserver variability associated with palpation estimates. A nomogram of thyroid volume in our environment is important to serve as a reference point in managing patients with thyroid pathologies, especially goitre. The purpose of this study was to establish reference ranges of total thyroid volume among the normal adult population in central India using ultrasonography and correlate it with thyroid function tests.
Methods and Material: A prospective cross-sectional study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital. A total of 410 healthy subjects were included. B-mode Ultrasonography was used to measure the total thyroid volume by combining the volume of both lobes obtained using the ellipsoid formula. Blood samples were taken for thyroid function tests. Age-specific reference values for thyroid volume were obtained.
Statistical analysis used: IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software for Windows, Version 26.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp was used for analysis.
Results: The mean total thyroid gland volume of all study subjects was \(6.90\pm1.74\) ml. Males had a significantly higher gland volume (\(7.30\pm1.86\) ml) compared to females (\(6.63\pm1.61\) ml) (\(P<0.001\)). The volume of the right lobe was significantly greater than that of the left lobe in both genders (\(3.76\pm0.96\) ml vs \(3.14\pm0.89\) ml, \(P<0.001\)). No significant correlation was found between gland volume and thyroid function tests.
Conclusions: We attempted to contribute to establishing the reference values for our local population, and further large studies are required to establish nationwide reference values of thyroid gland volume.

Background: Smoking is currently the most preventable cause of diseases and death worldwide and is one of the causative risk factors for developing cancer in different organs. Therefore, smoking patients must be carefully monitored for alterations in buccal mucosa caused by tobacco abuse.
Aim and Objective: The aim of the study is to investigate cytological changes in buccal mucosa cells and establish a correlation with the morphometric analysis of mouth opening among smokers and non-smokers.
Materials and Methods: A comparative study was conducted on 200 individuals aged between 20 and 60 years. The subjects were randomly chosen from inpatients and outpatients of the Medicine Department at Index Medical College and Hospital. Buccal smears of these patients were processed in the Department of Anatomy.
Results: Significant differences were observed between non-smokers and smokers for cells with binucleation, pyknosis, perinuclear halo, cytoplasmic granules, karyolysis, karyorrhexis, and micronuclei in buccal mucosal cells. However, no significant difference was found for cytoplasmic vacuoles between non-smokers and smokers. Similar studies have reported findings consistent with our non-smoking population.
Conclusion: The present study indicates that almost all cytomorphological findings were higher in smokers than in non-smokers. Early detection of oral cancers becomes complex as they are mostly innocuous and asymptomatic during their initial stages. Cytomorphometric analysis can be used regularly to detect these cell alterations.

Childhood constipation is a prevalent issue globally. Certain children experience persistent constipation and soiling, either as a result of surgical repair of anorectal malformations or underlying medical conditions that present management challenges. These refractory cases of constipation significantly affect the psychological well-being of both patients and their families. The available treatment options for refractory constipation are not clearly established. However, prompt and appropriate management of constipation contributes to an enhanced health-related quality of life. This article explores the current modalities available for treating children with challenging constipation and examines their impact on health-related quality of life.